Abstract The Puyo-Tena roadway is prone to landslides due to the geodynamics, geomorphology, and geological materials of the area (unstable outcrops and strata). In recent years, this problem has persistently caused the road to be partially or completely disabled on numerous occasions. The objective of the research was to generate a cartographic model of landslides susceptibility based on variables such as slope, geological formations, land cover and land use, as well as distances to faults, road, and rivers. The degree of landslides incidence was estimated as the linear combination of the weighted variables using the analytic hierarchy process. The importance of this semi-quantitative method lies in its ability to break down a complex decision problem into a simpler and more coherent decision model. The resulting cartographic model was classified into five susceptibility categories: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. The results showed that 17 km out of the 80 km of the Puyo-Tena roadway have a high probability of landslides, which is equivalent to 21.25% of the road. Furthermore, within this percentage, it was determined that there are fifteen regions with a high probability of landslides due to their location in areas with steep slopes, porous and permeable lithology, a large number of rivers, and agricultural soils. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) was used for model verification. The verification results showed that the cartographic model for the study area has an accuracy value of 83.7%. The cartographic model of landslide susceptibility will enable relevant decisions to be made to mitigate potential hazards that may endanger transporters, material goods, and residents of the area.

Resumen La carretera Puyo-Tena es propensa a deslizamientos de tierra debido a la geodinámica, geomorfología y materiales geológicos de la zona (afloramientos y estratos inestables). En los últimos años, este problema ha provocado de forma persistente la inutilización parcial o total de la carretera en numerosas ocasiones. El objetivo de la investigación fue generar un modelo cartográfico de susceptibilidad a deslizamientos a partir de variables como la pendiente, las formaciones geológicas, la cobertura y uso de la tierra, así como las distancias a fallas, carretera y ríos. El grado de incidencia de deslizamientos se estimó como la combinación lineal de las variables ponderadas mediante el proceso de jerarquía analítica. La importancia de este método semicuantitativo radica en su capacidad para desagregar un problema de decisión complejo en un modelo de decisión más simple y coherente. El modelo cartográfico resultante se reclasificó en cinco categorías de susceptibilidad: muy baja, baja, moderada, alta y muy alta. Los resultados mostraron que 17 km de los 80 km de la carretera Puyo-Tena tienen una alta probabilidad a deslizamientos, lo que equivale a 21,25% de la carretera. Además, dentro de este porcentaje, se determinó que existen quince regiones con alta probabilidad de deslizamientos debido a su ubicación en zonas con fuertes pendientes, litología porosa y permeable, gran cantidad de ríos y suelos agrícolas. Para la verificación del modelo se utilizó el área bajo la curva (en inglés AUC) de la característica operativa del receptor (en inglés ROC). Los resultados de la verificación mostraron que el modelo cartográfico para el área de estudio tiene un valor de precisión de 83,7%. El modelo cartográfico de susceptibilidad a deslizamientos permitirá tomar las decisiones pertinentes para mitigar eventos potenciales que puedan poner en peligro a transportistas, bienes materiales y residentes de la zona.

Abstract The Chalupas Caldera is a rhyolitic volcano located in the Eastern Cordillera to the Southeast of the Cotopaxi Volcano in the Ecuadorian Andes. It is supposedly fed by a huge magmatic chamber below the caldera. For studying the Chalupas magmatic chamber, the tomographic models obtained by a Tarantola-Valette inversion and studied previously in the entire Ecuadorian region were used. The theoretical basis of the tomography method based on a Bayesian solution of the inverse problem is introduced. The process of the inverse problem regularization is obtained by an L-curve scheme to achieve an optimal solution. The seismic tomography images zoomed in the Chalupas region are well correlated with the main geological terranes and faults documented for the basement of Eastern Cordillera. Based on the tomographic images obtained, it can be assumed that there is not a magmatic chamber of considerable magnitude placed close to the surface underneath the Chalupas Caldera, since it does not present seismic and tomographic evidence to be able to assume a possible volcanic eruption before long. Furthermore, the images allow identifying that the seismic and thermal activity is located beneath the Cotopaxi Volcano as a vertical anomaly beneath the Northeast of Cotopaxi Volcano that corresponds to the phreatomagmatic activity observed in 2015.

Resumen En este artículo presenta la teoría básica para estudiar las sociedades humanas como sistemas complejos. Se comienza por mostrar los axiomas de un sistema social así como las características generales de los sistemas complejos. La complejidad de los sistemas sociales se formaliza usando el concepto de la entropía no extensiva de Tsallis. Esta entropía se deduce a partir de la redefinición de la función logarítmica como el logaritmo-q. Con esta entropía se analizan las propiedades emergentes en la física de la sociedad usando un ejemplo de aplicación con datos del ingreso por hogares y la relación de la sociedad con todo el universo.

Abstract In this paper, we present the basic theory to study human societies as complex systems. We begin by showing the axioms of a social system as well as the general characteristics of the complex systems. The complexity of social systems is formalized using the concept of Tsallis non-extensive entropy. This entropy is deduced using the q-logarithm function that is a redefinition of the logarithm function. With this entropy, the emergent properties in the physics of society are analyzed using an application example with data from the income per home and the relationship of the society with the whole universe.